March 2012 - cypherpunks-legacy

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by "Кунжут - дизайн текстиля " 20 Mar '12

20 Mar '12

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20 Mar '12

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by DOOR - DOOR 20 Mar '12

20 Mar '12

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"The Pirate Bay Attacks Censorship With Low Orbit Server Drones" (torrentfreak.com)
by bbrewer 20 Mar '12

20 Mar '12

http://torrentfreak.com/the-pirate-bays-attacks-censorship-with-server-dron… The Pirate Bay Attacks Censorship With Low Orbit Server Drones ErnestoMarch 18, 2012145 tpbPrint In recent months The Pirate Bay has drastically changed its site to make it less vulnerable to ever increasing censorship attempts across the globe. But that was just the start, as the torrent site now says its getting ready to put some of its hardware in GPS controlled drones. Everyone knows WHAT TPB is. Now theyre going to have to think about WHERE TPB is, The Pirate Bay team told TorrentFreak. It is no secret that Hollywood wants The Pirate Bay to shut down. But to accomplish this authorities may soon have to shoot down the sites servers as these will be hovering in the air. The Pirate Bay today unveiled their new mission. Theyre working on hosting parts of their site in GPS-controlled drones, instead of old-fashioned data centers. Everyone knows WHAT TPB is. Now theyre going to have to think about WHERE TPB is, The Pirate Bay team told TorrentFreak. We were further informed that the first drone will probably fly above international waters. Were already the most resilient and the most down to earth. Thats why we need to lift off, being this connected to the ground doesnt feel appropriate to us anymore, TPB told us. Although the line between reality and fantasy can be rather thin at The Pirate Bay, we were assured that the plan to launch a drone is real. TPBs new host? In a blog post Hollywoods arch-rivals half reveal some more details about the unconventional plan. With the development of GPS controlled drones, far-reaching cheap radio equipment and tiny new computers like the Raspberry Pi, were going to experiment with sending out some small drones that will float some kilometers up in the air. This way our machines will have to be shut down with aeroplanes in order to shut down the system. A real act of war. Were just starting so we havent figured everything out yet. But we cant limit ourselves to hosting things just on land anymore. These Low Orbit Server Stations (LOSS) are just the first attempt. With modern radio transmitters we can get over 100Mbps per node up to 50km away. For the proxy system were building, thats more than enough. The drone plan is yet another move to make it harder to censor or shutdown The Pirate Bay. Last month the file-sharing site traded in torrents for magnets for the exact same reason, and behind the scenes The Pirate Bay team is making more adjustments. Looking ahead, The Pirate Bay team thinks the site may no longer be hosted on this planet. When the time comes we will host in all parts of the galaxy, being true to our slogan of being the galaxys most resilient system. And all of the parts well use to build that system on will be downloadable. Interesting times..

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Re: [tahoe-dev] Idea for a Publish/Subscribe Message System, on?Tahoe-LAFS
by Eugen Leitl 19 Mar '12

19 Mar '12

----- Forwarded message from "Stuart W. Card" <stu.card(a)critical.com> -----

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bitcoin is worse is better
by Eugen Leitl 19 Mar '12

19 Mar '12

http://www.gwern.net/Bitcoin%20is%20Worse%20is%20Better Bitcoin is Worse is Better Home Site Me 26 Jan 2012 Bitcoin's long gestation indicates it is an example of the 'Worse is Better' paradigm Pre-requisites Delay Impractical? Contemporary objections Cryptographers' objections Aesthetics How Worse is Better External links Some wonder who is the real man under the Satoshi Nakamoto mask; a hard question - how many libertarian cryptographers are there? But the interesting thing is, Satoshi could be anybody. Bitcoin involves no major intellectual breakthroughs, so Satoshi need have no credentials in cryptography or be anything but a self-taught programmer! Satoshi published his whitepaper May 20091, but if you look at the cryptography that makes up Bitcoin, they can basically be divided into: Public key cryptography Cryptographic signatures Cryptographic hash functions Hash chain used for proof-of-work Hash tree Bit gold cryptographic time-stamps Pre-requisites "So the first answer to Why Now? is simply 'Because it's time.' I can't tell you why it took as long for weblogs to happen as it did, except to say it had absolutely nothing to do with technology. We had every bit of technology we needed to do weblogs the day Mosaic launched the first forms-capable browser. Every single piece of it was right there. Instead, we got Geocities. Why did we get Geocities and not weblogs? We didn't know what we were doing."2 The interesting thing is that by even the most generous accounting, all the pieces were in place for at least 8 years before Satoshi's publication, which was followed more than half a year later3 by the first public4 prototype. If we look at the citations in the whitepaper and others, and then order the relevant technologies by year in descending order: 2001-20055: Nick Szabo, Bit Gold 2001: SHA-256 finalized 1998: Wei Dai, B-money6 1997: HashCash 1992-1993: Proof-of-work for spam7 1991: cryptographic timestamps 1980: public key cryptography8 1979: Hash tree This lack of novelty is part of the appeal - the fewer new parts of a cryptosystem, the less danger9. All that was lacking was a Satoshi to start a Bitcoin. Delay But why this delay? If the idea is easy to understand and uses basic ideas10, if it is very far from the cutting-edge of cryptography11, then there's no obvious reason it would not be seriously tried. Certainly the cypherpunks of the '90s were wildly creative, inventing everything from Cypherpunk/Mixmaster to MojoNation to assassination markets to data havens (memorably depicted in Cryptonomicon). We have already seen 2 of their proposed cryptocurrencies, and proof-of-work was one of the most common proposals to deal with the rising tsunami of spam12. Why did Bitcoin take a decade to be born? The problem nags at me - similar to the historical question of why England experienced the Industrial Revolution and grew to empire, and not China, which seems better equipped in every respect13. There must be an answer. Impractical? Is the problem one of resources? In the whitepaper, Satoshi remarks: A block header with no transactions would be about 80 bytes. If we suppose blocks are generated every 10 minutes, 80 bytes * 6 * 24 * 365 = 4.2MB per year. With computer systems typically selling with 2GB of RAM as of 2008, and Moore's Law predicting current growth of 1.2GB per year, storage should not be a problem even if the block headers must be kept in memory. That's fine to say in 2008, after many doublings. Would memory be a problem in the 1990s? It doesn't have to be. The difficulty of bitcoin mining is obviously adjustable, so the problem boils down to: disk usage With a smaller hash like SHA114, the 80 bytes can be shrunk 10 minutes is not graven in stone; why not 20 minutes? Right there we have halved the hash tree the hash tree can be 'garbage collected' and shrunk15 it is only necessary to maintain a full hash tree if one is paranoid. In practice, like many programs of the era such as mail or Usenet clients, the default could simply be to hold onto the last n blocks/hashes (Satoshi estimates 12kb/day); this would consume a limited amount of disk space. network connectivity is solvable by solutions to #1 A function of the existing hash tree size And frequency of new transactions It's worth pointing out that it's generally expected that at some point ordinary desktop users like you or me are expected to stop being full-fledged nodes and bitcoin miners and will instead make use of some specialist service running powerful servers of its own; in a counterfactual universe where Bitcoin was begun in the early 1990s, the changeover would simply have occurred sooner. (And with all the investment money desperately investing in the first Internet bubble, it would be quite easy to start such a service regardless of the technical demands.) Contemporary objections As well, few of the objections to cryptocurrencies seem to have been "computers which can run it are fantastically expensive"16. In computing, applications and techniques are often invented many decades before Moore's law makes them practically useful17, but this does not seem to have happened with Bitcoin. A similar objection obtains with patents or published papers; if Bitcoin was a known idea, where are they? I have yet to see anybody point out what patents might have deterred cryptography researchers & implementers; the obvious answer is that there were none. Because there was no investor interest? Not that Satoshi needed investors, but there were a tremendous number of online payment services started in the '90s, each searching for the secret sauce that would let them win 'mindshare' and ride 'network effects' to victory; DigiCash again comes to mind. So if the basic idea is accessible, and it's useful on consumer-grade hardware for the last 20 years or so, then what's the problem? Cryptographers' objections I think it's instructive to look at Satoshi's ANN thread on the Cryptography newsgroup/mailing list; particularly the various early criticisms: disk/bandwidth won't scale18 proposal is underspecified (omitting all the possible race conditions and desynchronization attacks and scenarios in a distributed system) and details available only in ad hoc code19 conflating transactions with bitcoin creation requires constant inflation it is very difficult to achieve consensus on large amounts of distributed data even without incentives to corrupt it or attacks domination of the hash tree by fast nodes and starvation of transactions pseudonymity & linkable transactions20 (irreversible transactions also implies double-spend must be very quickly detectable) As well, let's toss in some recent blog posts on Bitcoin by the cryptographer Ben Laurie and Victor Grischchenko; Laurie particularly criticizes21 the hash-contest which guarantees heavy resource consumption: "Bitcoin" "Bitcoin 2" "Bitcoin is Slow Motion" "Decentralised Currencies Are Probably Impossible: But Letbs At Least Make Them Efficient" "Bitcoin?" What's the common thread? Is there any particular fatal flaw of Bitcoin that explains why no one but Satoshi came up with it? Aesthetics No! What's wrong with Bitcoin is that it's ugly. It is not elegant22. It's clever to define your bitcoin balance as whatever hash tree is longer, has won more races to find a new block, but it's ugly to make your network's security depend solely on having more brute-force computing power than your opponents, ugly to need now and in perpetuity at least half the processing power just to avoid double-spending23. It's clever to have a P2P network distributing updated blocks which can be cheaply & independently checked, but there are tons of ugly edge cases which Satoshi has not proven (in the sense that most cryptosystems have security proofs) to be safe and he himself says that what happens will be a 'coin flip' at some points. It's ugly to have a hash tree that just keeps growing and is going to be gigabytes and gigabytes in not terribly many years. It's ugly to have a system which can't be used offline without proxies and workarounds, unlike Chaum's elegant solution24. It's ugly to have a system that has to track all transactions, publicly; even if one can use bitcoins anonymously with effort, that doesn't count for much - a cryptographer has learned from incidents like anon.penet.fi and decades of successful attacks on pseudonymity25. And what's with that arbitrary looking 21 million bitcoin limit? Couldn't it have been a rounder number or at least a power of 2? (Not that the bitcoin mining is much better, as it's a massive give-away to early adopters. Coase's theorem may say it doesn't matter how bitcoins are allocated in the long run, but such a blatant bribe to early adopters rubs against the grain. Again, ugly and inelegant.) Bitcoins can simply disappear if you send them to an invalid address. And so on. How Worse is Better In short, Bitcoin is a perfect example of Worse is Better (original essay). You can see the tradeoffs that Richard P. Gabriel enumerates: Bitcoin has many edge cases; it lacks many properties one would desire for a cryptocurrency; the whitepaper is badly underspecified; much of the behavior is socially determined by what the miners and clients collectively agree to accept, not by the protocol; etc. But it seems to work. Just like Unix, there were countless ways to destroy your data or crash the system, which didn't exist on more 'proper' OSs like OpenVMS, and there were countless lacking features compared to systems like ITS or the Lisp machine OSs. But like the proverbial cockroaches, Unix spread, networked, survived - and the rest did not.26 A cryptographer would have difficulty coming up with Bitcoin because it is so ugly and there are so many elegant features he wants in it. Programmers and mathematicians often speak of 'taste', and how they lead one to better solutions. A cryptographer's taste is for cryptosystems optimized for efficiency and theorems; it is not for systems optimized for virulence, for their sociological appeal27. Centralized systems are natural solutions because they are easy, like the integers are easy; but like the integers are but a vanishingly small subset of the reals, so too are centralized systems a tiny subset of decentralized ones28. DigiCash and all the other cryptocurrency startups may have had many nifty features, may have been far more efficient, and all that jazz, but they died anyway. They had no communities, and their centralization meant that they fell with their corporate patrons. They had to win in their compressed timeframe or die out completely. But "that is not dead which can eternal lie". It may be that Bitcoin's greatest virtue is not its deflation, nor its microtransactions, but its viral distributed nature; it can wait for its opportunity. "If you sit by the bank of the river long enough, you can watch the bodies of your enemies float by." External links Silk Road -(using the Silk Road marketplace) Original essay published on Bitcoin Weekly (7 comments) Reddit discussion Hacker News discussion Nick Szabo's reply/rebuttal, "Bitcoin, what took ye so long?" bitcoin.org was registered 18 August 2008, so presumably Satoshi had been developing the bitcoin idea at least as early as 2008.b) "A Group Is Its Own Worst Enemy", by Clay Shirky, published July 1, 2003 on the "Networks, Economics, and Culture" MLb) The first revision in the Github repository is dated August 2009 by 'sirius-m'.b) Satoshi claims that before he write the whitepaper, he wrote a prototypeb) It's hard to figure out when Szabo devised bit gold; his post claims to be from December 2008 but the URL indicates 2005 and it is linked in November 2008 emails. Szabo has long been interested in proof-of-work systems, writing on them in ~1998. A paper started in 2001 motivates the existence of bit gold and describes, but that may be material from the 2004 or 2005 revisions. Hal Finney mentioned bit gold in 2008 (in the context of a bitcoin discussion) describing Szabo's proposal as 'many years ago', and inasmuch as Hal has been active in cryptography circles since the '80s (was a member of the Cypherpunks mailing list etc.), it seems unlikely Hal was speaking of something then just 3 years ago.b) In the same vein of 'the network is a third party which keeps a copy of all signed transactions', you could include Ian Grigg's 2005 paper "Triple Entry Accounting".b) "Pricing via Processing, Or, Combating Junk Mail", , Dwork 1993, published in CRYPTO'92.b) This is Satoshi's citation date; Diffie-Hellman, the first published system, was in 1976, not 1980.b) In cryptography, new parts are guilty until proven innocent. Hundreds of past systems have been broken, sometimes after decades of study & use.b) I am only a layman with an interest in cryptography, but I am not alone in seeing this lack of really novel primitives or ideas in the Bitcoin scheme; Ben Laurie expresses exactly this idea in an aside in a blog post attacking Bitcoin: "A friend alerted to me to a sudden wave of excitement about Bitcoin. I have to ask: why? What has changed in the last 10 years to make this work when it didn't in, say, 1999, when many other related systems (including one of my own) were causing similar excitement? Or in the 20 years since the wave before that, in 1990? As far as I can see, nothing." b) One thinks of the formidable mathematical difficulties surrounding the area of homomorphic encryption where one would expect any breakthrough to be from a bona fide genius, or at least a credentialed expert.b) Although ironically, proof-of-work never seemed to go into widespread use because of general inertia and because to deter large amounts of spam, proof-of-work would deter legitimate users under some models; spam seems to have been kept in check by better filtering techniques (eg. Paul Graham's "A Plan for Spam" using Bayesian spam filtering) and legal action against botnets & spammers.b) For more on that history, see Wikipedia on Industrial Revolution#Causes for occurrence in Europe, Chinese_industrialization#Reasons_for_the_delay_in_industrialization, the Great Divergence; I strongly recommend Gregory Clark's A Farewell to Alms.b) SHA-1, as of 2011, has not been cracked in practice.b) My understanding is that simply no one has bothered to program this functionality since 400MB is not that much space.b) Or rather, the objections were that cryptocurrencies had to be mobile - usable on the contemporary PDAs and cellphones, with the computing power of a watch.b) Garbage collection and most of artificial intelligence (or machine learning in particular) seem to have waited decades for sufficiently fast hardware. Indeed, I sometimes feel that Alan Kay's entire career has essentially been sketching out what he could do if only he had some decent cheap hardware.b) It probably will. Some informal projections have been made of what it would take to run millions of transactions worth trillions of dollars, and they tend to come in at comparable to the existing resource use of companies like Google (which fund their own power plants or monopolize convenient hydroelectric dams to run their datacenters).b) Recent criticism, too, sometimes focuses on the quality of the C++ codebase and ad hoc nature of many of the choices; from an anonymous Facebook comment: "The protocol is not well-defined and clearly designed by an amateur (that is, not someone who has done much protocol implementation work). It's a binary protocol with a smattering of length-prefixing, null terminated strings, etc. The messages look reasonable, just a horrible encoding. The rules of the protocol are poorly defined and tightly coupled to implementation; the implementation is done by someone who feels it's good and well to have only 5 major source files for 17 KLOC. Due to lack of a well-specified protocol, there is also a bit of client monoculture going on. It's worth noting that the whole system assumes SHA-256 -- the bitcoin community says that rolling over to something else is just a matter of introducing a new algo, but in actuality it's not nearly that simple. The protocol has no concept of upgrading to different algos, so it would necessitate a complete overhaul of the protocol (since there's a lot of 32-byte fields in there) AND a re-computation/rollover of the entire transaction history. ...The protocol also has had no thought put into it re: network architecture -- there are peers and that's it. Due to the cryptographic nature of transactions, it's simply not possible to have realtime transactions with bitcoin as the network scales (it already take 5-10 mins on average for the network to see a single transaction). Thus, there will need to be some concept of a node in the network that can facilitate interactions between two peers in a faster fashion, with the assumption of a measure of trust. You shouldn't require it, of course, but it should be defined, I think." Security expert Dan Kaminsky is similarly appalled at the bandwidth requirements to scale (":0" was his emoticon) and predicts that the Bitcoin network will eventually turn into a quasi-bank-like oligarchy of supernodes (which changes the system and "offers a host of ugly semantics" since the supernodes "don't need 50% -- just need to inconvenience 50% to accept your opinion"). He comments that while "Normal Code" seems good but "Scratch the surface, it's actually really bad", the Bitcoin codebase "Looks really bad up front" and "Scratch the surface, it's actually surprisingly good". New Yorker article's "The Crypto-currency: Bitcoin and its mysterious inventor": "'When I first looked at the code, I was sure I was going to be able to break it', Kaminsky said, noting that the programming style was dense and inscrutable. 'The way the whole thing was formatted was insane. Only the most paranoid, painstaking coder in the world could avoid making mistakes.'...He quickly identified nine ways to compromise the system...when he found the right spot, there was a message waiting for him. 'Attack Removed', it said. The same thing happened over and over, infuriating Kaminsky. 'I came up with beautiful bugs', he said. 'But every time I went after the code there was a line that addressed the problem.'...'I've never seen anything like it', Kaminsky said, still in awe...'Either there's a team of people who worked on this', Kaminsky said, 'or this guy is a genius.'" On a technical basis, he dislikes the use of SHA-256 as opposed to slower time-lock crypto functions like bcrypt, because SHA-256 "can be accelerated massively with GPUs" leading to GPU shortages and massive hashing disparities between peers, and his slides conclude "BitCoin is actually well designed, if you accept that anonymity and scaling forces the entire present model to be shifted into something that effectively looks like banking"b) Nick Szabo, discussing Chaumian ecash ("the greatest simple equation since e=mc2"), comments with almost palpable distaste of a hypothetical system akin to Bitcoin in this respect: "A use-once-address communications mix plus forswearing any reputation gain from keeping accounts, in theory also buys us unlinkability, but a communications mix [BTC: "mixing service"; not necessarily easy] is weak and very expensive." The most widely known, popular, and secure communications mix is probably Tor; a number of flaws have been found in it over time, and Tor will never be very secure - it's fundamentally difficult to impossible to have a anonymizing communications mix which is also near real-time. Some flaws can't be removed by the Tor network, like the ability of exit nodes to snoop on traffic (as has been done many times, most memorably during the startup of Wikileaks). Communications mixes are usually expensive in resources, so typically only make up a part of an overall network - and the rest of the network leaks considerable information, including in Bitcoin.b) Perry Metzger summarizes Laurie's approach: "I think people have missed the more subtle point that Ben Laurie made here. Bitcoin requires the use of an unusual sort of secure consensus protocol to work reliably, and such protocols are not known to exist in this context. In the presence of such a protocol, however, there is no longer any need for mining -- the system can simply elect a member to acquire a new coin every N seconds via a secure election protocol (and those are known given the rest). Thus, Ben's point that if you're going to have a system like bitcoin, one could at least have an efficient system of this sort rather than a stupid one based on an electrical potlatch." b) Not everyone agrees with me or those initial posters, though; "Bitcoins create truly democratic policy, followers say", Canada.com: '"It's like the Mona Lisa." said Bruce Wagner, an IT consultant who discovered bitcoin in October and now hosts an online TV show about it. "It's a masterpiece of technology."' b) "Decentralised Currencies Are Probably Impossible: But Letbs At Least Make Them Efficient", Ben Laurie: "Now that we understand the core problem, namely that of agreement, we can quite easily understand Bitcoinbs solution to the problem. Bitcoin defines the consensus group as b all the computing power in existenceb, and requires participants to prove their possession of whatever fraction of this power they care to spend on Bitcoin by using it to produce proof-of-work tokens. And once we state the problem like this, we can quite clearly see the flaw. Until at least half of the computing power in existence is actually used to produce Bitcoins, we cannot know that we have consensus! If, for example, 1% of the total power availableStrictly, I mean energy rather than power, since Bitcoin actually, in effect, sums power over time. is used to produce Bitcoins at present (in fact, the amount is far less than that), then at any point someone could come along with a further 1.1% of the total power and use this to define their own consensusBy forking history right back to the first block, and producing a hash chain that is longer than the current consensus., thus invalidating all the work, and all the money, of the initial group, and instead take possession of the entire currency for themselves. ...Even worse, it is clear that arriving at the equilibrium state for Bitcoin is incredibly expensive: half of all the computing power in existence must be burnt, in perpetuity, maintaining agreement about the current state of the currency. It also unknowable: we can never be sure that we actually are burning half of all the power in existence, because we do not know how much power exists." Laurie points out that in practice, the Bitcoin community does depend on a centralized authority which periodically passes down 'blessed' block-chains - the Bitcoin developers periodically hardwire known-good states of the block-chain into the clients (which of course is a theoretical weakness).b) Chaum pays a price for his systems' ability to work offline. Don't take my word for it; see Tim May in section 12.6.6 of his early '90s Cyphernomicon (not to be confused with Stephenson's novel drawing heavily on it): "...Chaum went to great lengths to develop system which preserve anonymity for single-spending instances, but which break anonymity and thus reveal identity for double-spending instances. I'm not sure what market forces caused him to think about this as being so important, but it creates many headaches. Besides being clumsy, it require physical ID, it invokes a legal system to try to collect from "double spenders", and it admits the extremely serious breach of privacy by enabling stings. For example, Alice pays Bob a unit of money, then quickly Alice spends that money before Bob can...Bob is then revealed as a "double spender," and his identity revealed to whomever wanted it...Alice, IRS, Gestapo, etc. A very broken idea. Acceptable mainly for small transactions. Multi-spending vs. on-line clearing I favor on-line clearing. Simply put: the first spending is the only spending. The guy who gets to the train locker where the cash is stored is the guy who gets it. This ensure that the burden of maintaining the secret is on the secret holder. When Alice and Bob transfer money, Alice makes the transfer, Bob confirms it as valid (or verifies that his bank has received the deposit), and the transaction is complete. With network speeds increasing dramatically, on-line clearing should be feasible for most transactions. Off-line systems may of course be useful, especially for small transactions, the ones now handled with coins and small bills." b) For example, see some of the most recent research I linked in Death Note: L, Anonymity & Eluding Entropy.b) The UNIX-HATERS Handbook, which contains many entertaining and often still-applicable descriptions of the fecklessness and sharp edges of Unixes, also contains an extremely funny 'Anti-Foreword' by Dennis Ritchie: "To the contributors to this book: I have succumbed to the temptation you offered in your preface: I do write you off as envious malcontents and romantic keepers of memories. The systems you remember so fondly (TOPS-20, ITS, Multics, Lisp Machine, Cedar/Mesa, the Dorado) are not just out to pasture, they are fertilizing it from below...You claim to seek progress, but you succeed mainly in whining. Here is my metaphor: your book is a pudding stuffed with apposite observations, many well-conceived. Like excrement, it contains enough undigested nuggets of nutrition to sustain life for some. But it is not a tasty pie: it reeks too much of contempt and of envy. Bon appetit!" b) Many anonymous commenters point this out because it makes Bitcoin smell like some sort of Ponzi scheme or multilevel marketing scheme: "Bitcoin, like the recent commercial phenomenon Groupon, tends to turn people into marketers because they feel they have something to gain, however small it might be in the end; I think that partly accounts for its temporary success." Or "The Rise and Fall of Bitcoin", Wired: "Stefan Brands, a former ecash consultant and digital currency pioneer, calls bitcoin b cleverb and is loath to bash it but believes itbs fundamentally structured like b a pyramid schemeb that rewards early adopters." John Robb, "More Thoughts on Bitcoin": "Lots of people are saying: "The deflation built into bitcoin was a terrible idea. People are getting rich." In fact, it was a brilliant idea. It brought in speculators (people that are buying/selling it as if in a game). It created a bubble. The bubble put it on the map. The bubble has attracted thousands of developers/participants. Think of how the Netscape IPO fueled the Web/Internet." b) Decentralized systems are usually convertible into centralized systems easily, while the converse is not true. (Much like parallel versus serial programming - to make a parallel program serial, just insert a lot of blocking.) For a simple example, consider cases where n=2: imagine a BitTorrent swarm (a decentralized system) with one seed and one leech. Or take Distributed Revision Control Systems like Darcs or Git; it's a commonplace to point out that if a group really wants a 'centralized' workflow, they can just designate one particular repository the 'master' canonical repository and continue onwards with the DVCS as a more capable replacement for Apache Subversion or CVS.b)

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(no subject)
by �v�� z�q 19 Mar '12

19 Mar '12

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