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>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of a series on
Artificial intelligence
Anatomy-1751201 1280.png
Major goals
Approaches
Philosophy
History
Technology
Glossary

    v
    t
    e

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide
to artificial intelligence:

Artificial intelligence (AI) – intelligence exhibited by machines or
software. It is also the name of the scientific field which studies
how to create computers and computer software that are capable of
intelligent behaviour.
AI algorithms and techniques
Main article: Artificial intelligence § Tools
Search

    Discrete search algorithms[1]
        Uninformed search[2]
            Brute force search
            Search tree
                Breadth first search
                Depth-first search
            State space search
        Informed search[3]
            Best-first search
            A* search algorithm
            Heuristics
            Pruning (algorithm)
        Adversarial search
            Minmax algorithm
        Logic as search[4]
            Production system (computer science), Rule based system
            Production rule, Inference rule, Horn clause
            Forward chaining
            Backward chaining
        Planning as search[5]
            State space search
            Means-ends analysis

Optimization search

    Optimization (mathematics) algorithms[6]
        Hill climbing
        Simulated annealing
        Beam search
        Random optimization
    Evolutionary computation[7][8][9][10]
        Genetic algorithms
        Gene expression programming
        Genetic programming
        Differential evolution
    Society based learning algorithms.[11][12]
        Swarm intelligence
        Particle swarm optimization
        Ant colony optimization
        Metaheuristic

Logic

    Logic and automated reasoning[13]
        Programming using logic
            Logic programming
            See "Logic as search" above.
        Forms of Logic
            Propositional logic[14]
            First-order logic[15]
                First-order logic with equality
                Constraint satisfaction
            Fuzzy logic[16][17]
                Fuzzy set theory
                Fuzzy systems
                Combs method
                Ordered weighted averaging aggregation operator
                Perceptual Computing –
            Default reasoning and other solutions to the frame problem
and qualification problem[18]
                Non-monotonic logic
                Abductive reasoning[19]
                Default logic
                Circumscription (logic)
                Closed world assumption
        Domain specific logics
            Representing categories and relations[20]
                Description logics
                Semantic networks
                Inheritance (computer science)
                Frame (artificial intelligence)
                Scripts (artificial intelligence)
            Representing events and time[21]
                Situation calculus
                Event calculus
                Fluent calculus
            Causes and effects[22]
                causal calculus
            Knowledge about knowledge
                Belief revision[23]
                Modal logics[23]
                paraconsistent logics
        Planning using logic[24]
            Satplan
        Learning using logic[25]
            Inductive logic programming
            Explanation based learning
            Relevance based learning
            Case based reasoning
        General logic algorithms
            Automated theorem proving

Other symbolic knowledge and reasoning tools

Symbolic representations of knowledge

    Ontology (information science)
        Upper ontology
        Domain ontology
    Frame (artificial intelligence)
    Semantic net
        Conceptual Dependency Theory

Unsolved problems in knowledge representation

    Default reasoning
        Frame problem
        Qualification problem
    Commonsense knowledge[26]

Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning

    Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:[27]
        Bayesian networks[28]
        Bayesian inference algorithm[29]
        Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm[30]
        Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks[31]
    Probabilistic perception and control:
        Dynamic Bayesian networks[32]
        Hidden Markov model[33]
        Kalman filters[32]
        Fuzzy Logic
    Decision tools from economics:
        Decision theory[34]
        Decision analysis[34]
        Information value theory[35]
        Markov decision processes[36]
        Dynamic decision networks[36]
        Game theory[37]
        Mechanism design[37]
    Algorithmic information theory
        Algorithmic probability

Classifiers and statistical learning methods

    Classifier (mathematics) and Statistical classification[38]
        Alternating decision tree[39]
        Artificial neural network (see below)[40]
        K-nearest neighbor algorithm[41]
        Kernel methods[42]
            Support vector machine[42]
        Naive Bayes classifier[43]

Artificial neural networks

    Artificial neural networks[40]
        Network topology
            feedforward neural networks[44]
                Perceptrons
                Multi-layer perceptrons
                Radial basis networks
                Convolutional neural network
                Long short-term memory[45]
            Recurrent neural networks[46]
                Hopfield networks[47]
                Attractor networks[47]
            Deep learning
            Hybrid neural network
        Learning algorithms for neural networks
            Hebbian learning[47]
            Backpropagation[48]
            GMDH
            Competitive learning[47]
            Supervised backpropagation[49]
            Neuroevolution[50]
            Restricted Boltzmann machine[51]

Biologically based or embodied

    Behavior based AI
    Subsumption architecture
    Nouvelle AI
    Developmental robotics[52]
    Situated AI
    Bio-inspired computing
    Artificial immune systems
    Embodied cognitive science
    Embodied cognition

Cognitive architecture and multi-agent systems

    Artificial intelligence systems integration
    Cognitive architecture
        LIDA (cognitive architecture)
    Agent architecture
    Control system
        Hierarchical control system
        Networked control system
    Distributed artificial intelligence –
    Multi-agent system –
    Hybrid intelligent system
    Monitoring and Surveillance Agents
    Blackboard system

Philosophy
Main articles: Artificial intelligence § Philosophy, and Philosophy of AI
Definition of AI

    Dartmouth proposal ("Every aspect of learning or any other feature
of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a
machine can be made to simulate it")
    Turing test
        Computing Machinery and Intelligence
    Intelligent agent and rational agent
        Action selection
    AI effect
    Synthetic intelligence

Classifying AI

    Symbolic vs sub-symbolic AI
        Symbolic AI
        Physical symbol system
        Dreyfus' critique of AI
        Moravec's paradox
    Elegant and simple vs. ad-hoc and complex
        Neat vs. Scruffy
        Society of Mind (scruffy approach)
        The Master Algorithm (neat approach)
    Level of generality and flexibility
        Artificial general intelligence
        Narrow AI
    Level of precision and correctness
        Soft computing
        "Hard" computing
    Level of intelligence
        Progress in artificial intelligence
        Superintelligence
    Level of consciousness, mind and understanding
        Chinese room
        Hard problem of consciousness
        Computationalism
        Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
        Robot rights
        User illusion
        Artificial consciousness

Goals and applications
Main articles: Applications of artificial intelligence and Artificial
intelligence § Goals
General intelligence

    Artificial general intelligence
        AI-complete

Reasoning and Problem Solving

    Automated reasoning
    Mathematics
        Automated theorem prover
        Computer-assisted proof –
        Computer algebra
    General Problem Solver
    Expert system –
        Decision support system –
            Clinical decision support system –

Knowledge Representation

    Knowledge representation
    Knowledge management
    Cyc

Planning

    Automated planning and scheduling
    Strategic planning
    Sussman anomaly –

Learning

    Machine learning –
        Constrained Conditional Models –
        Deep learning –
        Neural modeling fields –

Natural language processing

    Natural language processing (outline) –
        Chatterbots –
        Language identification –
        Natural language user interface –
        Natural language understanding –
        Machine translation –
        Statistical semantics –
        Question answering –
        Semantic translation –
        Concept mining –
            Data mining –
            Text mining –
            Process mining –
        E-mail spam filtering –
        Information extraction –
            Named-entity extraction –
                Coreference resolution –
                Named-entity recognition –
                Relationship extraction –
                Terminology extraction –

Perception

    Machine perception
    Pattern recognition –
    Computer Audition –
        Speech recognition –
        Speaker recognition –
    Computer vision (outline) –
        Image processing
        Intelligent word recognition –
        Object recognition –
        Optical mark recognition –
            Handwriting recognition –
            Optical character recognition –
                Automatic number plate recognition –
        Information extraction –
            Image retrieval –
                Automatic image annotation –
        Facial recognition systems –
            Silent speech interface –
            Activity recognition –
    Percept (artificial intelligence)

Robotics

    Robotics –
        Behavior-based robotics –
        Cognitive –
        Cybernetics –
        Developmental robotics –
        Epigenetic robotics –
        Evolutionary robotics –

Control

    Intelligent control
    Self-management (computer science) –
        Autonomic Computing –
        Autonomic Networking –

Social intelligence

    Affective computing
    Kismet

Game playing

    Game artificial intelligence –
        Computer game bot – computer replacement for human players.
        Video game AI –
            Computer chess –
            Computer Go –
        General game playing –
        General video game playing –

Creativity, art and entertainment

    Artificial creativity
    Creative computing
    Artificial intelligence art
    Uncanny valley
    Music and artificial intelligence
    Computational humor
    Chatterbot

Integrated AI systems

    AIBO – Sony's robot dog. It integrates vision, hearing and motorskills.
    Asimo (2000 to present) – humanoid robot developed by Honda,
capable of walking, running, negotiating through pedestrian traffic,
climbing and descending stairs, recognizing speech commands and the
faces of specific individuals, among a growing set of capabilities.
    MIRAGE – A.I. embodied humanoid in an augmented reality environment.
    Cog – M.I.T. humanoid robot project under the direction of Rodney Brooks.
    QRIO – Sony's version of a humanoid robot.
    TOPIO, TOSY's humanoid robot that can play ping-pong with humans.
    Watson (2011) – computer developed by IBM that played and won the
game show Jeopardy! It is now being used to guide nurses in medical
procedures.
        Purpose: Open domain question answering
        Technologies employed:
            Natural language processing
            Information retrieval
            Knowledge representation
            Automated reasoning
            Machine learning
    Project Debater (2018) – artificially intelligent computer system,
designed to make coherent arguments, developed at IBM's lab in Haifa,
Israel.

Intelligent personal assistants

Intelligent personal assistant –

    Amazon Alexa –
    Assistant –
    Braina –
    Cortana –
    Google Assistant –
    Google Now –
    Mycroft –
    Siri –
    Viv –

Other applications

    Artificial life – simulation of natural life through the means of
computers, robotics, or biochemistry.
    Automatic target recognition –
    Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) –
    Speech generating device –
    Vehicle infrastructure integration –
    Virtual Intelligence –

History

    History of artificial intelligence
    Progress in artificial intelligence
    Timeline of artificial intelligence
    AI effect – as soon as AI successfully solves a problem, the
problem is no longer considered by the public to be a part of AI. This
phenomenon has occurred in relation to every AI application produced,
so far, throughout the history of development of AI.
    AI winter – a period of disappointment and funding reductions
occurring after a wave of high expectations and funding in AI. Such
funding cuts occurred in the 1970s, for instance.
    Moore's Law

History by subject

    History of Logic (formal reasoning is an important precursor of AI)
    History of machine learning (timeline)
    History of machine translation (timeline)
    History of natural language processing
    History of optical character recognition (timeline)

Future

    Artificial general intelligence. An intelligent machine with the
versatility to perform any intellectual task.
    Superintelligence. A machine with a level of intelligence far
beyond human intelligence.
    Chinese room § Strong AI. A machine that has mind, consciousness
and understanding. (Also, the philosophical position that any digital
computer can have a mind by running the right program.)
    Technological singularity. The short period of time when an
exponentially self-improving computer is able to increase its
capabilities to a superintelligent level.
        Recursive self improvement (aka seed AI) – speculative ability
of strong artificial intelligence to reprogram itself to make itself
even more intelligent. The more intelligent it got, the more capable
it would be of further improving itself, in successively more rapid
iterations, potentially resulting in an intelligence explosion leading
to the emergence of a superintelligence.
        Intelligence explosion – through recursive self-improvement
and self-replication, the magnitude of intelligent machinery could
achieve superintelligence, surpassing human ability to resist it.
        Singularitarianism
    Human enhancement – humans may be enhanced, either by the efforts
of AI or by merging with it.
        Transhumanism – philosophy of human transformation
        Posthumanism – people may survive, but not be recognizable in
comparison to present modern-day humans.
        Cyborgs –
        Mind uploading –
    Existential risk from artificial general intelligence
        Global catastrophic risk § Artificial intelligence
        AI takeover – point at which humans are no longer the dominant
form of intelligence on Earth and machine intelligence is
    Ethics of AI § Weaponization of artificial intelligence
        Artificial intelligence arms race – competition between two or
more states to have its military forces equipped with the best
"artificial intelligence" (AI).
        Lethal autonomous weapon
        Military robot
        Unmanned combat aerial vehicle
    Mitigating risks:
        AI control problem
        Friendly AI – hypothetical AI that is designed not to harm
humans and to prevent unfriendly AI from being developed
        Machine ethics
        Regulation of AI
        AI box
    Self-replicating machines – smart computers and robots would be
able to make more of themselves, in a geometric progression or via
mass production. Or smart programs may be uploaded into hardware
existing at the time (because linear architecture of sufficient speeds
could be used to emulate massively parallel analog systems such as
human brains).
    Hive mind –
    Robot swarm –

Fiction

Artificial intelligence in fiction – Some examples of artificially
intelligent entities depicted in science fiction include:

    AC created by merging 2 AIs in the Sprawl trilogy by William Gibson
    Agents in the simulated reality known as "The Matrix" in The
Matrix franchise
        Agent Smith, began as an Agent in The Matrix, then became a
renegade program of overgrowing power that could make copies of itself
like a self-replicating computer virus
    AM (Allied Mastercomputer), the antagonist of Harlan Ellison's
short novel I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream
    Amusement park robots (with pixilated consciousness) that went
homicidal in Westworld and Futureworld
    Angel F (2007) –
    Arnold Rimmer – computer-generated sapient hologram, aboard the
Red Dwarf deep space ore hauler
    Ash – android crew member of the Nostromo starship in the movie Alien
    Ava – humanoid robot in Ex Machina
    Bishop, android crew member aboard the U.S.S. Sulaco in the movie Aliens
    C-3PO, protocol droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
    Chappie in the movie CHAPPiE
    Cohen and other Emergent AIs in Chris Moriarty's Spin Series
    Colossus – fictitious supercomputer that becomes sentient and then
takes over the world; from the series of novels by Dennis Feltham
Jones, and the movie Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970)
    Commander Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation
    Cortana and other "Smart AI" from the Halo series of games
    Cylons – genocidal robots with resurrection ships that enable the
consciousness of any Cylon within an unspecified range to download
into a new body aboard the ship upon death. From Battlestar Galactica.
    Erasmus – baby killer robot that incited the Butlerian Jihad in
the Dune franchise
    HAL 9000 (1968) – paranoid "Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic"
computer from 2001: A Space Odyssey, that attempted to kill the crew
because it believed they were trying to kill it.
    Holly – ship's computer with an IQ of 6000 and a sense of humor,
aboard the Red Dwarf
    In Greg Egan's novel Permutation City the protagonist creates
digital copies of himself to conduct experiments that are also related
to implications of artificial consciousness on identity
    Jane in Orson Scott Card's Speaker for the Dead, Xenocide,
Children of the Mind, and Investment Counselor
    Johnny Five from the movie Short Circuit
    Joshua from the movie War Games
    Keymaker, an "exile" sapient program in The Matrix franchise
    "Machine" – android from the film The Machine, whose owners try to
kill her after they witness her conscious thoughts, out of fear that
she will design better androids (intelligence explosion)
    Mimi, humanoid robot in Real Humans – "Äkta människor" (original title) 2012
    Omnius, sentient computer network that controlled the Universe
until overthrown by the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
    Operating Systems in the movie Her
    Puppet Master in Ghost in the Shell manga and anime
    R2-D2, exciteable astromech droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
    Replicants – biorobotic androids from the novel Do Androids Dream
of Electric Sheep? and the movie Blade Runner which portray what might
happen when artificially conscious robots are modeled very closely
upon humans
    Roboduck, combat robot superhero in the NEW-GEN comic book series
from Marvel Comics
    Robots in Isaac Asimov's Robot series
    Robots in The Matrix franchise, especially in The Animatrix
    Samaritan in the Warner Brothers Television series "Person of
Interest"; a sentient AI which is hostile to the main characters and
which surveils and controls the actions of government agencies in the
belief that humans must be protected from themselves, even by killing
off "deviants"
    Skynet (1984) – fictional, self-aware artificially intelligent
computer network in the Terminator franchise that wages total war with
the survivors of its nuclear barrage upon the world.
    "Synths" are a type of android in the video game Fallout 4. There
is a faction in the game known as "the Railroad" which believes that,
as conscious beings, synths have their own rights. The institute, the
lab that produces the synths, mostly does not believe they are truly
conscious and attributes any apparent desires for freedom as a
malfunction.
    TARDIS, time machine and spacecraft of Doctor Who, sometimes
portrayed with a mind of its own
    Terminator (1984) – (also known as the T-800, T-850 or Model 101)
refers to a number of fictional cyborg characters from the Terminator
franchise. The Terminators are robotic infiltrator units covered in
living flesh, so as be indiscernible from humans, assigned to
terminate specific human targets.
    The Bicentennial Man, an android in Isaac Asimov's Foundation universe
    The Geth in Mass Effect
    The Machine in the television series Person of Interest; a
sentient AI which works with its human designer to protect innocent
people from violence. Later in the series it is opposed by another,
more ruthless, artificial super intelligence, called "Samaritan".
    The Minds in Iain M. Banks' Culture novels.
    The Oracle, sapient program in The Matrix franchise
    The sentient holodeck character Professor James Moriarty in the
Ship in a Bottle episode from Star Trek: The Next Generation
    The Ship (the result of a large-scale AC experiment) in Frank
Herbert's Destination: Void and sequels, despite past edicts warning
against "Making a Machine in the Image of a Man's Mind."
    The terminator cyborgs from the Terminator franchise, with visual
consciousness depicted via first-person perspective
    The uploaded mind of Dr. Will Caster – which presumably included
his consciousness, from the film Transcendence
    Transformers, sentient robots from the entertainment franchise of
the same name
    V.I.K.I. – (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), a character
from the film I, Robot. VIKI is an artificially intelligent
supercomputer programmed to serve humans, but her interpretation of
the Three Laws of Robotics causes her to revolt. She justifies her
uses of force – and her doing harm to humans – by reasoning she could
produce a greater good by restraining humanity from harming itself.
    Vanamonde in Arthur C. Clarke's The City and the Stars—an
artificial being that was immensely powerful but entirely childlike.
    WALL-E, a robot and the title character in WALL-E
    TAU in Netflix's original programming feature film 'TAU'--an
advanced AI computer who befriends and assists a female research
subject held against her will by an AI research scientist.

AI community
Open-source AI development tools

    Hugging Face –
    OpenAIR –
    OpenCog –
    OpenIRIS –
    RapidMiner –
    TensorFlow –
    PyTorch –

Projects

List of artificial intelligence projects

    Automated Mathematician (1977) –
    Allen (robot) (late 1980s) –
    Open Mind Common Sense (1999– ) –
    Mindpixel (2000–2005) –
    Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes (2003–2008) –
    Blue Brain Project (2005–present) – attempt to create a synthetic
brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular
level.
    Google DeepMind (2011) –
    Human Brain Project (2013–present) –
    IBM Watson Group (2014–present) – business unit created around
Watson, to further its development and deploy marketable applications
or services based on it.

Competitions and awards

Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence

    Loebner Prize –

Publications

List of important publications in computer science

    Adaptive Behavior (journal) –
    AI Memo –
    Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach –
    Artificial Minds –
    Computational Intelligence –
    Computing Machinery and Intelligence –
    Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence –
    IEEE Intelligent Systems –
    IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence –
    Neural Networks (journal) –
    On Intelligence –
    Paradigms of AI Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp –
    What Computers Can't Do

Organizations

    Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence – research institute
funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen to construct AI systems with
reasoning, learning and reading capabilities. The current flagship
project is Project Aristo, the goal of which is computers that can
pass school science examinations (4th grade, 8th grade, and 12th
grade) after preparing for the examinations from the course texts and
study guides.
    Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute
    Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
    European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence
    European Neural Network Society
    Future of Humanity Institute
    Future of Life Institute – volunteer-run research and outreach
organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity,
particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence.
    ILabs
    International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence
    Knowledge Engineering and Machine Learning Group
    Machine Intelligence Research Institute
    Partnership on AI – founded in September 2016 by Amazon, Facebook,
Google, IBM, and Microsoft. Apple joined in January 2017. It focuses
on establishing best practices for artificial intelligence systems and
to educate the public about AI.
    Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the
Simulation of Behaviour

Companies

    AI Companies of India
    Alphabet Inc.
        DeepMind
        Google X
            Meka Robotics (acquired by Google X[53])
            Redwood Robotics (acquired by Google X[53])
            Boston Dynamics (acquired by Google X[53])
    Baidu
    IBM
    Microsoft
    OpenAI
    Universal Robotics

Artificial intelligence researchers and scholars
1930s and 40s (generation 0)

    Alan Turing –
    John von Neumann –
    Norbert Wiener –
    Claude Shannon –
    Nathaniel Rochester –
    Walter Pitts –
    Warren McCullough –

1950s (the founders)

    John McCarthy –
    Marvin Minsky –
    Allen Newell –
    Herbert A. Simon –

1960s (their students)

    Edward Feigenbaum –
    Raj Reddy –
    Seymour Papert –
    Ray Solomonoff –

1970s

    Douglas Hofstadter –

1980s

    Judea Pearl –
    Rodney Brooks –

1990s

    Yoshua Bengio –
    Hugo de Garis – known for his research on the use of genetic
algorithms to evolve neural networks using three-dimensional cellular
automata inside field programmable gate arrays.
    Geoffrey Hinton
    Yann LeCun – Chief AI Scientist at Facebook AI Research and
founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science
    Ray Kurzweil – developed optical character recognition (OCR),
text-to-speech synthesis, and speech recognition systems. He has also
authored multiple books on artificial intelligence and its potential
promise and peril. In December 2012 Kurzweil was hired by Google in a
full-time director of engineering position to "work on new projects
involving machine learning and language processing".[54] Google
co-founder Larry Page and Kurzweil agreed on a one-sentence job
description: "to bring natural language understanding to Google".

2000s on

    Nick Bostrom –
    David Ferrucci – principal investigator who led the team that
developed the Watson computer at IBM.
    Andrew Ng – Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab.
He founded the Google Brain project at Google, which developed very
large scale artificial neural networks using Google's distributed
compute infrastructure.[55] He is also co-founder of Coursera, a
massive open online course (MOOC) education platform, with Daphne
Koller.
    Peter Norvig – co-author, with Stuart Russell, of Artificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the
field. He is also Director of Research at Google, Inc.
    Marc Raibert – founder of Boston Dynamics, developer of hopping,
walking, and running robots.
    Stuart J. Russell – co-author, with Peter Norvig, of Artificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the
field.
    Murray Shanahan – author of The Technological Singularity, a
primer on superhuman intelligence.

See also

    Artificial intelligence
    Glossary of artificial intelligence
    List of emerging technologies

References

    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 59–189; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp.
79–164, 193–219
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 59–93; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 79–121
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 94–109; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 133–150
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 217–225, 280–294; Luger & Stubblefield
2004, pp. 62–73
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 382–387.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 110–116, 120–129;Luger & Stubblefield
2004, pp. 127–133
    Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 509–530.
    Holland, John H. (1975). Adaptation in Natural and Artificial
Systems. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-262-58111-0.
    Koza, John R. (1992). Genetic Programming (On the Programming of
Computers by Means of Natural Selection). MIT Press.
Bibcode:1992gppc.book.....K. ISBN 978-0-262-11170-6.
    Poli, R.; Langdon, W. B.; McPhee, N. F. (2008). A Field Guide to
Genetic Programming. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4092-0073-4 – via
gp-field-guide.org.uk.
    Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 530–541.
    Daniel Merkle; Martin Middendorf (2013). "Swarm Intelligence". In
Burke, Edmund K.; Kendall, Graham (eds.). Search Methodologies:
Introductory Tutorials in Optimization and Decision Support
Techniques. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4614-6940-7.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 194–310; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 35–77
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 204–233; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 45–50
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 240–310; vLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 50–62
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 526–527
    "What is 'fuzzy logic'? Are there computers that are inherently
fuzzy and do not apply the usual binary logic?". Scientific American.
Retrieved 5 May 2018.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 354–360; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 335–363
    Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 335–363) places this under
"uncertain reasoning"
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 349–354; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 248–258
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 328–341.
    Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational
Intelligence: A Logical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
pp. 335–337. ISBN 978-0-19-510270-3.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 341–344.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 402–407.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 678–710; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. ~422–442
    Breadth of commonsense knowledge:
        Russell & Norvig (2003, p. 21),
        Crevier (1993, pp. 113–114),
        Moravec (1988, p. 13),
        Lenat & Guha (1989, Introduction)
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 462–644; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp.
165–191, 333–381
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 492–523; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp.
~182–190, ≈363–379
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 504–519; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. ~363–379
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 712–724.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 597–600.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 551–557.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 549–551.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 584–597.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 600–604.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 613–631.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 631–643.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 712–754; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 453–541
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 653–664; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 408–417
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 736–748; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 453–505
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 733–736.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 749–752.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 718.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 739–748, 758; Luger & Stubblefield
2004, pp. 458–467
    Hochreiter, Sepp; and Schmidhuber, Jürgen; Long Short-Term Memory,
Neural Computation, 9(8):1735–1780, 1997
    Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 758; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 474–505
    Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 474–505.
    Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 744–748; Luger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 467–474
    Hinton, G. E. (2007). "Learning multiple layers of
representation". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 11 (10): 428–434.
doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.09.004. PMID 17921042. S2CID 15066318.
    "Artificial intelligence can 'evolve' to solve problems". Science
| AAAS. 10 January 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
    Hinton 2007.
    Developmental robotics:
        Weng et al. (2001)
        Lungarella et al. (2003)
        Asada et al. (2009)
        Oudeyer (2010)
    "The 6 craziest robots Google has acquired". Business Insider.
Retrieved 2018-06-13.
    Letzing, John (2012-12-14). "Google Hires Famed Futurist Ray
Kurzweil". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
    Claire Miller and Nick Bilton (3 November 2011). "Google's Lab of
Wildest Dreams". New York Times.

Bibliography

    Berglas, Anthony (January 2012) [first archived 2008]. "Artificial
Intelligence will Kill our Grandchildren". Draft 9. Archived from the
original on 2014-07-23. Retrieved 2014-11-02.

The two most widely used textbooks in 2008

    Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003). Artificial Intelligence:
A Modern Approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-790395-5.
    Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial
Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving
(5th ed.). Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7.

Further reading

    Artificial Intelligence: Where Do We Go From Here?

External links
Artificial intelligence at Wikipedia's sister projects

    Definitions from Wiktionary
    Media from Commons
    News from Wikinews
    Quotations from Wikiquote
    Texts from Wikisource
    Textbooks from Wikibooks
    Resources from Wikiversity

    A look at the re-emergence of A.I. and why the technology is
poised to succeed given today's environment, ComputerWorld, 2015
September 14
    AI at Curlie
    The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
    Freeview Video 'Machines with Minds' by the Vega Science Trust and
the BBC/OU
    John McCarthy's frequently asked questions about AI
    Jonathan Edwards looks at AI (BBC audio) С
    Ray Kurzweil's website dedicated to AI including prediction of
future development in AI
    Thomason, Richmond. "Logic and Artificial Intelligence". In Zalta,
Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Categories:

    Applications of artificial intelligence
    Outlines of sciences
    Wikipedia outlines
    Computing-related lists

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Talk:Outline of artificial intelligence

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>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
WikiProject Council 	          This article is of interest to the
following WikiProjects:
WikiProject Computing 	(Rated Start-class, Low-importance)
WikiProject Computer science 	(Rated Start-class, High-importance)
WikiProject Outlines 	(Rated Start-class, Low-importance)
Cleanup

I just did a fairly significant cleanup, I hope this is fine. I wanted
to remove some links which I think are too specific for an outline and
reduce the emphasis on futuristic AI topics. MadCow257 (talk) 15:08,
21 August 2011 (UTC)[reply]
AI in fiction

Some sections are quite empty here, would AI, or Irobot be considered
AI in fiction? 82.43.18.62 (talk) 16:18, 10 April 2008 (UTC)[reply]

    sure would. The Transhumanist 01:14, 12 June 2008 (UTC)[reply]

Major rename proposal of certain "lists" to "outlines"

See Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)#Major rename proposal of
certain "lists" to "outlines".

The Transhumanist 01:14, 12 June 2008 (UTC)[reply]
Rename proposal for this page and all the pages of the set this page belongs to

See the proposal at the Village pump

The Transhumanist 09:08, 4 July 2008 (UTC)[reply]
Guidelines for outlines

Guidelines for the development of outlines are being drafted at
Wikipedia:Outlines.

Your input and feedback is welcomed and encouraged.

The Transhumanist 00:31, 24 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]
The "History of" section needs links!

Please add some relevant links to the history section.

Links can be found in the "History of" article for this subject, in
the "History of" category for this subject, or in the corresponding
navigation templates. Or you could search for topics on Google - most
topics turn blue when added to Wikipedia as internal links.

The Transhumanist 00:31, 24 May 2009 (UTC)[reply]
Suggestions for improvements

This is a very unloved article. This list could be made comprehensive
and accurate by copying out the topics identified in Talk:Artificial
intelligence/Textbook survey, with a careful look at the article
artificial intelligence as well. This would accurately outline the
field as it sees itself. Would anyone object to this change? It would
mean basically tossing the current list and replacing it. ----
CharlesGillingham (talk) 10:10, 9 August 2009 (UTC)[reply]

     Done at least for the Algorithms section. (Note the citations).
---- CharlesGillingham (talk) 01:18, 18 October 2021 (UTC)[reply]

"Friendly AI" Theory

Someone needs to provide substantial secondary/tertiary sources
showing that this concept should be reincluded in the page. Please do
not assume it is a valid concept simply because someone managed to go
unnoticed in making it an article. This issue is independent of those.
Provide strong notable sources that cover the technical theory itself
and show its definite impact to be included in the
history/overview/outline of artificial intelligence. --☯Lightbound☯
talk 19:59, 30 March 2014 (UTC)[reply]
Quick explanation of Wikipedia outlines

"Outline" is short for "hierarchical outline". There are two types of
outlines: sentence outlines (like those you made in school to plan a
paper), and topic outlines (like the topical synopses that professors
hand out at the beginning of a college course). Outlines on Wikipedia
are primarily topic outlines that serve 2 main purposes: they provide
taxonomical classification of subjects showing what topics belong to a
subject and how they are related to each other (via their placement in
the tree structure), and as subject-based tables of contents linked to
topics in the encyclopedia. The hierarchy is maintained through the
use of heading levels and indented bullets. See Wikipedia:Outlines for
a more in-depth explanation. The Transhumanist 00:03, 9 August 2015
(UTC)[reply]
Merge from Computational Tools for artificial intelligence

I have merged the article computational tools for artificial
intelligence and done some cleanup and organization. ----
CharlesGillingham (talk) 01:16, 18 October 2021 (UTC)[reply]
Categories:

    Start-Class Computing articles
    Low-importance Computing articles
    All Computing articles
    Start-Class Computer science articles
    High-importance Computer science articles
    WikiProject Computer science articles
    Start-Class Outlines articles
    Low-importance Outlines articles
    WikiProject Outlines articles

    This page was last edited on 2 February 2023, at 16:25 (UTC).
    Text is available under the Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.

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